“Fortress Europe” and the Mediterranean: A critical analysis of the externalisation of borders in the European Union

Security outsourcing and border control are recurring themes in world politics, especially in the European Union, to such an extent that many experts in the field of migration and human rights refer to it using the metaphor “Fortress Europe”. Indeed, this thesis analyses border externalisation in the context of the EU, focusing on its real impact on the ground in the Mediterranean and, therefore, on its effectiveness beyond numbers and statistics. More specifically, it aims to demonstrate how these policies generate significant human rights implications, as individuals intercepted or contained at the external borders are frequently exposed to practices that undermine their fundamental rights. The importance of the topic lies in the framing of migration as a security issue, which leads to the implementation of restrictive policies such as externalisation that, rather than stopping mobility, reshape it in ways that amplify its human costs. In light of these considerations, the objective is to demonstrate the necessity of a shift in the prevailing framework in order to promote policies that do not place security concerns above the protection of human rights. After an introductory chapter on the state of the art, this thesis focuses on three emblematic examples of border externalisation policies in Europe: the 2016 EU-Turkey Statement, the 2017 Italy-Libya Memorandum of Understanding, and the 2023 Italy-Albania Protocol. These case studies serve to explore how externalisation practices have unfolded, their human rights consequences, and the spaces for challenge and resistance developed by activists and non-governmental organisations. The latter aspect is addressed in the final part of the thesis, which, based on direct testimony and participant observation with Mediterranea Saving Humans, analyses the role of non-governmental actors in challenging externalisation.