Analysis of ecosystem services in urban and suburban areas: Trade-offs, synergies and their relationship with landscape configuration attributes.

Ecosystem services (ESs) provide the basis of human well-being. As ecosystems face increasing degradation, understanding the relationship between ESs and green space features becomes relevant for planning purposes of urban and suburban areas. However, knowledge gaps and inconsistencies are still present in literature. This study aims to explore trade-offs and synergies among eight ESs (i.e., biodiversity, pollination, biomass production, cooling effect, carbon stock, water infiltration, aesthetic and recreational values) quantified in green spaces of urban and suburban areas and to evaluate the link with their spatial configuration. After identifying trade-offs and synergies through Spearman’s correlation tests and Principal Component Analysis (PCA), we identified the relationships between ESs and landscape configuration attributes through generalised linear models (GLMs) by accounting for patch area, proximity to other green spaces and contrast with built-up surfaces. The analysis revealed significant correlations among ESs; specifically, biodiversity results in trade-off with four other ESs that are instead in synergy with each other (i.e., biomass production, cooling effect, aesthetic and recreational values). Pollination, carbon stock and water infiltration did not show trade-offs or synergies. The relationship with configuration attributes revealed proximity as significant variable to be considered in urban and suburban planning. Our results can guide strategic planning of green spaces in order to promote both the generation and provision of ESs and manage trade-offs between them, ultimately ensuring the sustainable development of urban and suburban areas.